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sexta-feira, 23 de setembro de 2011

Close Up Look at a Microbial Vaccination Program

ScienceDaily (Sep. 22, 2011) — A complex of proteins in the bacterium E.coli that plays a critical role in defending the microbe from viruses and other invaders has been discovered to have the shape of a seahorse by researchers with the U.S Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). This discovery holds far more implications for your own health than you might think.
The architecture of the Cascade protein complex, a key player in the microbial immune system, resembles a seahorse, with crRNAs (green) displayed along the backbone within a helical arrangement of Cas protein subunits.
In its never-ending battle to protect you from infections by bacteria, viruses, toxins and other invasive elements, your immune system has an important ally -- many allies in fact. By the time you reach adulthood, some 90-percent of the cells in your body are microbial. These microbes -- collectively known as the microbiome -- play a critical role in preserving the health of their human host.

"Perturbations of the human microbiome by viral and other infections can disrupt important symbioses and open the door to invasions by human pathogens," says Blake Wiedenheft, a biochemist with Berkeley Lab and the University of California (UC) Berkeley. "By understanding the mechanisms behind microbial immune systems, we can better understand how they are similar and where they are different from the human immune system."

Wiedenheft is part of a team of researchers, led by biochemist Jennifer Doudna, a leading authority on RNA molecular structures, and biophysicist Eva Nogales, an expert on electron microscopy and image analysis, that has provided the first sub-nanometer look at a central player in the microbial immune system. Through a combination of cryo-electron microscopy and three-dimensional image reconstruction, they have determined the structure of a protein complex called "Cascade," that acts as a surveillance system for detecting and inactivating the nucleic acid of invading pathogens.

Doudna and Nogales are the corresponding authors and Wiedenheft and Gabriel Lander are the lead authors of a paper describing this research in the journal Nature. The paper is titled "Structures of the RNA-guided surveillance complex from a bacterial immune system." Like Wiedenheft, Doudna, Nogales and Lander all hold joint appointments with Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley. Doudna and Nogales are also investigators with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI). Wiedenheft is an HHMI fellow, and Lander a fellow with the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation.

The microbial immune system can be likened to a vaccination program because of the adaptive-type nucleic acid-based line of defense deployed by a unit of DNA called CRISPR, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. Although CRISPR defense systems are only found in microbes, they are analogous to the way in which the human immune system deploys short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to fight off infections or correct genetic problems.

Usually located on a microbe's chromosome, CRISPR units consist of "repeats," base-pair sequences ranging from 30 to 60 nucleotides in length, that are separated by "spacers," variable sequences, which are also 30 to 60 nucleotides in length. A microbe might harbor several CRISPR loci (sites) within its genome and each locus might contain between four and 100 CRISPR repeat-spacer units. When a microbe recognizes that it has been invaded, it incorporates a small piece of the invader's DNA into one of its CRISPR units as a new spacer sequence.

"By integrating short fragments of foreign DNA into its CRISPR units, a microbe maintains a genetic record of all prior encounters with foreign transgressors," says Doudna. "CRISPRs are transcribed and the long primary transcript is processed into a library of short CRISPR-derived RNAs (crRNAs), each of which contains a unique sequence that is complementary to a foreign nucleic acid challenger."

In Escherichia coli, crRNAs are incorporated into the Cascade complex -- Cascade stands for CRISPR-associated complex for antiviral defense. It is the mission of Cascade to detect and engage foreign DNA. Cascade will release crRNAs that will bind with foreign nucleic acid sequences -- via base pair matching to a "seed" sequence of nucleotides -- and silence or otherwise inactivate them. Cascade will also send out signals to recruit the enzyme Cas3 to join the battle. Cas3 is a single-stranded nuclease that can cleave foreign DNA into harmless pieces.

To learn how Cascade is able to carry out its mission, Doudna, Nogales, Wiedenheft, Lander and a team of colleagues determined the sub-nanometer structures of Cascade before and after binding to a target sequence of foreign DNA. They discovered Cascade's seahorse-shaped architecture and found that crRNAs are displayed along the spine of the seahorse within a helical arrangement of protein subunits.

"The rigid backbone of this seahorse shaped architecture helps explain how the Cascade complex is able to accommodate crRNAs in a way that simultaneously protects them from degradation while maintaining their availability for base pairing to an invading nucleic acid target," Wiedenheft says. "We further speculate that Cascade may pre-order a portion of the crRNA in a helical configuration and that this mechanism may be a structural solution for RNA-guided target binding that has been conserved through evolution."

Although its seahorse shape is maintained throughout Cascade's engagement with the enemy, the binding of the cRNAs to a foreign target does induce a "concerted conformational change" in the helical protein subunits running along Cascade's backbone.

Says Nogales, "We speculate that this conformational change in the protein subunits generates a signal for recruiting Cas3 for further degradation of invading nucleic acid sequences."

Cascade is a small complex by electron microscopy standards and its asymmetric conformation presented a major challenge that required the acquisition of a large amount of data during what Lander describes as "marathon" collection sessions.

"Three dimensional processing of electron microscopy data is generally a slow and iterative process, starting with very low resolution blobs that over time take shape and provide more intricate details," says Lander. "Given Cascade's seahorse shape, it was a bit like watching an embryo grow into a fully developed Cascade with a corkscrew spine. This is the very special kind of specimen that microscopists dream of."

In addition to Doudna, Nogales, Wiedenheft and Lander, other co-authors of the Nature paper "Structures of the RNA-guided surveillance complex from a bacterial immune system" were Kaihong Zhou, Matthijs Jore, Stan Brouns and John van der Oost.

quinta-feira, 22 de setembro de 2011

Nanotubos de carbono são bons para tecnologia, não para suas células

Nanotubos de carbono são bons para a tecnologia, não para você
A pesquisa mostrou que as nanopartículas de carbono não matam as células renais, elas afetam o seu funcionamento.



Nanopartículas nas células
Um estudo de toxicidade realizado por biólogos e médicos das universidades de Indiana e Purdue (EUA) concluiu que as nanopartículas de carbono podem ter efeitos danosos sobre as células vivas.
As nanopartículas de carbono - nanotubos e outros materiais de uma classe conhecida como fulerenos - têm uma importância crescente na eletrônica e mesmo na medicina.
Os pesquisadores estudaram exposições em concentrações dessas nanopartículas que simularam a exposição a um aparelho eletrônico que usa as nanopartículas em sua tecnologia, a morar perto de uma fábrica de nanopartículas de carbono e, finalmente, a trabalhar diretamente com elas.
Nanopartículas nos rins
O impacto sobre o corpo humano foi medido usando células do néfron renal, uma estrutura tubular dentro dos rins responsável pela produção da urina.
Os pesquisadores concluíram que a presença das nanopartículas de carbono nessa parte do corpo é significativa e preocupante, sobretudo porque é esta parte do organismo que seria responsável por eliminar o material estranho do corpo.
"Ao contrário de muitos outros estudos, nós usamos baixas concentrações de nanopartículas de carbono, que são típicas do que pode aparecer no corpo depois de ingeri-los por contaminação ambiental ou mesmo respirar ar com as nanopartículas," disse a Dra. Bonnie Blazer-Yost, coordenadora do estudo.
A pesquisa mostrou que as nanopartículas não matam as células, elas afetam o seu funcionamento.
Barreiras biológicas
"Descobrimos que essas partículas minúsculas causam vazamento no revestimento celular do néfron renal," explica a bióloga.
"O rompimento dessa barreira biológica nos preocupa porque as coisas que deveriam ser retidas na urina podem vazar de volta para a corrente sanguínea e as coisas no sangue podem vazar para a urina. Substâncias biológicas normais, assim como resíduos de produtos, são perigosos se forem onde não deveriam ir," completou.
As barreiras biológicas são importantes em todo o corpo humano, estando presentes na pele, nos pulmões, intestinos, rins, no cérebro etc. Sua quebra pode produzir impactos negativos, embora a pesquisa não tenha prosseguido em busca de eventuais efeitos danosos.
"Nós precisamos prosseguir o estudo para ver como as nanopartículas vão se comportar em outras partes do corpo, como elas podem afetar a expressão de proteínas, assim como o que acontece quando elas cruzam as barreiras biológicas," concluiu a pesquisadora.

Sensibilidade eletromagnética: as doenças da era tecnológica


Fumaça invisível
Os riscos à saúde da poluição eletromagnética da chamada tecnologia wireless parece estar seguindo o mesmo rumo do que ocorreu há mais de um século com o cigarro.
No início, "especialistas" anunciavam que o prejuízo do tabaco era pequeno demais, irrelevante, que as pessoas tinham "direito ao prazer", e outros "argumentos" bem documentados nos registros históricos.
Agora, os "especialistas", que dificilmente se identificam, defendem com ardor que "nada está provado" sobre os riscos causados por uma exposição excessiva a altas taxas de radiação eletromagnética - as ondas de rádio emitidas, entre outros, pelos celulares e pelas torres de telefonia celular.
Como, em outra época, os prejuízos do tabaco seriam "pequenos demais", agora é a potência das ondas de rádio que é "pequena demais" para afetar a saúde das pessoas.
Prazos curtos
De fato, ainda há poucos estudos na área e, sobretudo, estudos de longo prazo. O que é natural, porque a tecnologia tem um "curto prazo" de vida, não tendo havido ainda tempo para estudar seus efeitos a longo prazo.
Exatamente como acontecia com o cigarro - demora até algumas décadas para que o câncer de pulmão causado pelo fumo apareça.
Mas os primeiros estudos mostram alguns resultados preocupantes:
São igualmente preocupantes os efeitos da convivência das populações com as torres de alta tensão, outro elemento da poluição eletromagnética:
Política do avestruz
O elemento mais preocupante, contudo, é a constante declaração das autoridades de saúde de que não haveria "evidências" suficientes para qualquer ação.
Como se todas as autoridades de saúde não soubessem que as principais ações devem ser feitas na prevenção.
E "evidências", segundo os dicionários, são demonstrações irrecorríveis, que falam por si próprias - ora, então o que as autoridades de saúde querem aparentemente são mártires, pessoas que mostrem de forma irrecorrível que sofreram com o problema.
O que se espera das autoridades de saúde, atuantes na prevenção, é que elas tomem providências ante os primeiros "indícios" de que algo pode estar saindo em desacordo com o esperado.
No caso dos telefones celulares, e da radiação eletromagnética como um todo, a principal medida preventiva seria aceitar a discussão aberta sobre o tema, uma discussão que incorpore os fabricantes e os cientistas que desenvolvem as tecnologias.
Somente assim o mercado poderia ser dirigido para fabricar produtos que não se enquadrem nos fatores de risco que os primeiros estudos começam a levantar - uma potência elevada demais dos aparelhos portáteis, por exemplo.
Hipersensibilidade eletromagnética
Um campo de estudo privilegiado são as pessoas com hipersensibilidade eletromagnética, uma doença registrada em pequenos níveis em todas as partes do mundo mas que, estranhamente, ainda não é formalmente reconhecida pela Organização Mundial de Saúde - os casos são poucos, mas são em número muito mais elevado do que algumas síndromes genéticas há muito tempo reconhecidas.
Há até um local específico para estes estudos: a região de Green Bank, no Estado da Virgína (EUA), onde há uma enorme instalação de radiotelescópios. Como os equipamentos não podem sofrer interferências, a região foi declarada "zona livre de ondas de rádio".
Lá, nenhum telefone celular ou conexão sem fios à internet funciona.
Isso está transformando a área de 33 mil quilômetros quadrados em um verdadeiro ímã de atração para as pessoas com hipersensibilidade eletromagnética, que encontram lá um verdadeiro paraíso.
Síndrome neurológica
Foi essa situação privilegiada que atraiu também o professor Andrew Marino, da Universidade do Estado da Louisiana (EUA). Para ele, é necessário aceitar que os campos eletromagnéticos no ambiente podem produzir sintomas nos seres humanos.
Marino e sua equipe acabam de publicar um estudo no International Journal of Neuroscience, intitulado "Hipersensibilidade eletromagnética: Evidências de uma Nova Síndrome Neurológica".
O estudo demonstra, pela primeira vez, que existe uma relação entre as dores e as queimaduras na pele dos pacientes com hipersensibilidade eletromagnética e a frequência eletromagnética dos campos a que estão sujeitos.
"Em um procedimento duplo-cego EMF [campo eletromagnético] especificamente projetado para minimizar pistas sensoriais involuntárias, o sujeito [voluntário sendo estudado] desenvolveu dor temporal, dor de cabeça, espasmos musculares e aumento nos batimentos cardíacos 100 segundos após o início da exposição," conclui o estudo.
Orgulho científico
A esperança é que estudos como este quebrem o "orgulho acadêmico" da grande maioria dos cientistas, que ainda acreditam que demonstrar que a tecnologia pode afetar a saúde humana os coloca "contra a corrente" - e a maioria não quer encarar temas difíceis ou não tem a força necessária para enfrentar correntezas.
O que não deixa de ser espantoso é ter que convencer os cientistas disto, uma vez que todo o sistema nervoso humano, incluindo o cérebro, trabalha com correntes elétricas mínimas, o que torna o corpo humano altamente suscetível a campos eletromagnéticos externos, sobretudo se são campos magnéticos de alta potência.
Esses "cientistas do atraso", que pretensamente querem defender a tecnologia, já fariam um ótimo serviço à população se parassem de se contrapor a uma ideia sobre a qual são totalmente ignorantes, uma vez que se recusam a estudá-la.

New Insight Into Immune Tolerance Furthers Understanding of Autoimmune Disease

ScienceDaily (Sep. 15, 2011) — It is no easy task to preserve the delicate balance that allows us to maintain a strong immune system that can defend us from harmful pathogens, but that is sensitive enough to correctly identify and spare our own cells. Therefore, it is not surprising that the mechanisms that underlie immune activation and tolerance are not completely understood. Now, a new research study published by Cell Press in the journal Immunity and available online on Sept. 15 provides intriguing insight into the complex immune regulatory mechanisms that underlie immune tolerance.
A sample from a normal lung is on the left, and from a diseased lung on the right. Immune cells invade lung tissue when GATA-3 is absent in Tregs. 
Cells called Foxp3-expressing regulatory T cells, or "Treg cells," are a subpopulation of immune cells that suppress the immune system to maintain self tolerance. These regulatory "suppressor" cells have to recognize our own cells as "self" in order to turn off the effector arm of the immune system so that it does not attack our own healthy tissues and cause an autoimmune or inflammatory disease. There has been a lot of interest in Treg cells because it has been hypothesized that these cells might be useful for treating autoimmune disease or facilitating organ transplantation. "Foxp3 is a transcription factor that is important for Treg cell function," explains senior study author, Dr. Yisong Y. Wan, from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. "If we are going to fully understand immune tolerance and regulation, it is critical to understand how Treg and Foxp3 function are controlled."

Dr. Wan and colleagues were interested looking at a second transcription factor, GATA-3, best known as a master regulator of another type of immune cell. "GATA-3 plays multi-faceted roles of regulating immune function in a cell-type specific fashion," says Dr. Wan. "However, whether and how GATA-3 is involved in controlling Treg function was unknown." The researchers discovered that when GATA-3 was deleted from Treg cells, mice developed a spontaneous inflammatory disorder and that Treg cells were defective in their ability to suppress the immune system. They went on to show that GATA-3 controls Foxp3 expression by binding to a regulatory region in the Foxp3 gene and that defects in both GATA-3 and Foxp3 resulted in substantially impaired Treg cells.

Therefore, the investigators have shown that one transcription factor (GATA-3) can control the expression of another transcription factor (FoxP3) to drive functional differentiation of Treg cells. By evolutionarily engineering a multi-layered process of transcriptional regulation, nature has provided for the opportunity to finely tune the generation of Treg cells. "Our study provides novel insights into the modulation of Treg function, revealing an indispensible role of GATA-3 in regulating Treg function and immune tolerance," concludes Dr. Wan. "We suggest that GATA-3 expression in Treg cells is important for the modulation of Treg function and immune response, and thus needs to be considered in order to fully understand how protective (to clear pathogen) and pathogenic (to cause autoimmunity and inflammatory disease) immune responses are controlled."

Researchers Discover How 'Promiscuous Parasites' Hijack Host Immune Cells

ScienceDaily (Sep. 21, 2011) — Toxoplasma gondii parasites can invade your bloodstream, break into your brain and prompt behavioral changes from recklessness to neuroticism. These highly contagious protozoa infect more than half the world's population, and most people's immune systems never purge the intruders.
Toxoplasma gondii parasites, green, multiply inside an immune cell that lives in the brain.
Cornell researchers recently discovered how T. gondii evades our defenses by hacking immune cells, making it the first known parasite to control its host's immune system. Immunologists from the College of Veterinary Medicine published the study Sept. 8 in PLoS Pathogens, describing a forced partnership between parasite and host that challenges common conceptions of how pathogens interact with the body.

"Toxoplasma is an especially promiscuous parasite," said Eric Denkers, professor of immunology. "It infects nearly all warm-blooded species, most nucleated cell types and much of the human population. Although it lives in vital brain and muscle tissues, it usually causes no obvious reaction. Infection can seriously harm people with weak immune systems, yet most hosts experience no overt symptoms because Toxoplasma has found a way to coerce cooperation."

Famous for its manipulative powers, T. gondii has been shown to alter the brain chemistry of rodents so that they fearlessly pursue cats. Cats eat the rodents, delivering the parasites to their breeding ground in feline intestines. Similar manipulations have surfaced in human studies linking T. gondii infections to behavioral and personality shifts, schizophrenia and population variations, including cultural differences and skewed sex ratios. Denkers' study maps T. gondii's newfound ability to manipulate cells in the immune system at the molecular level.

"We found that Toxoplasma quiets its host's alarm system by blocking immune cells from producing certain cytokines, proteins that stimulate inflammation," said Denkers. "Cytokines are double-edged swords: They summon the immune system's reinforcements, but if too many accumulate they can damage the body they're trying to defend. An unregulated immune response can kill you."

When immune cells meet intruders, they release cytokines that summon more immune cells, which produce more cytokines, rapidly causing inflammation. T. gondii must allow cytokines to trigger enough of an immune response to keep its own numbers in check and ensure host survival. But too many cytokines cause an overwhelming immune response that could damage the host or eliminate the parasites.

"Toxoplasma hijacks immune cells to enforce a mutually beneficial balance," Denkers said. "Until recently we thought it walled itself away inside cells without interacting with its environment. It's now clear that the parasite actively releases messages into cells that change cell behavior."

To prove this, Barbara Butcher, a senior research associate working with Denkers, exposed immune cells in the lab to bacterial factors that typically stimulate the release of inflammatory cytokines.

"Cells infected with Toxoplasma produced no messages to trigger inflammation," Denkers said. "Our colleagues at Stanford University found that Toxoplasma produces a specific protein called ROP16 to suppress inflammatory responses. Collaborating with parasitologists at Dartmouth Medical School, we found that Toxoplasma sends ROP16 to infiltrate communication channels in immune cells, causing them to lower cytokine production.

"We are excited to have found the first non-bacterial pathogen able to exert this kind of control," said Denkers. "If Toxoplasma can do this, maybe other parasites can too. This is the first case where the whole process of immune system manipulation is close to being completely mapped out at the molecular level."

That map may help steer future investigations into how pathogens interact with hosts, unveiling the inner workings of a spectrum of infectious diseases.